Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a prevalent, debilitating and sometimes deadly
consequence of exposure to severe psychological trauma. Although effective treatments …

This article reviews the behavioral neuroscience of extinction, the phenomenon in which a
behavior that has been acquired through Pavlovian or instrumental (operant) learning …

Background Many studies report smaller hippocampal and amygdala volumes in
posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), but findings have not always been consistent. Here …

The adaptive regulation of fear memories is a crucial neural function that prevents
inappropriate fear expression. Fear memories can be acquired through contextual fear …

Once acquired, a fearful memory can persist for a lifetime. Although learned fear can be
extinguished, extinction memories are fragile. The resilience of fear memories to extinction …

Fear memory is the best-studied form of memory. It was thoroughly investigated in the past
60 years mostly using two classical conditioning procedures (contextual fear conditioning …

Progress in clinical and affective neuroscience is redefining psychiatric illness as
symptomatic expression of cellular/molecular dysfunctions in specific brain circuits. Post …

Anxiety disorders are the most common mental disorders and are often chronic and
disabling. Although exposure-based treatments are effective, a substantial number of …

Fear extinction is a phenomenon that involves a gradual reduction in conditioned fear
responses through repeated exposure to fear-inducing cues. Functional brain connectivity …

The hippocampal formation (HPC) and medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) have well-
established roles in memory encoding and retrieval. However, the mechanisms underlying …