The development of antiretroviral drugs (ARVs) was a great milestone in the management of
HIV infection. ARVs suppress viral activity in the host cell, thus minimizing injury to the cells …

The emergence of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) variants
and “anatomical escape” characteristics threaten the effectiveness of current coronavirus …

Most deaths from the COVID-19 pandemic are due to acute respiratory distress syndrome
(ARDS)-related respiratory failure. Cytokine storms and oxidative stress are the major …

Viral myocarditis is known to be a primary cause of dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) that can
lead to heart failure and sudden cardiac death and is invariably caused by myocardial viral …

SARS-CoV-2 causes COVID-19, an infectious disease with symptoms ranging from a mild
cold to severe pneumonia, inflammation, and even death. Although strong inflammatory …

Interferons (IFNs), IFN-stimulated genes (ISGs), and inflammatory cytokines mediate innate
immune responses, and are essential to establish an antiviral response. Within the innate …

Coronaviruses (CoVs) are a family of the largest RNA viruses that typically cause
respiratory, enteric, and hepatic diseases in animals and humans, imposing great threats to …

Replication of the 30-kilobase genome of SARS-CoV-2, responsible for COVID-19, is a key
step in the coronavirus life cycle that requires a set of virally encoded nonstructural proteins …

The recognition of viral nucleic acids by host pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) is critical
for initiating innate immune responses against viral infections. These innate immune …

Type I interferon (IFN)-mediated responses operate a pivotal role in the first line of host
immune defense against viruses. Upon DNA virus infection, DNA sensing cyclic GMP-AMP …