Approximately two decades after the first pioneering analyses, the study of shape asymmetry
with the methods of geometric morphometrics has matured and is a burgeoning field. New …

Biological systems, from molecular complexes to whole organisms and ecological
interactions, tend to have a modular organization. Modules are sets of traits that are …

Morphometric studies often consider parts with internal left‐right symmetry, for instance, the
vertebrate skull. This type of symmetry is called object symmetry and is distinguished from …

The developmental stability of an organism is reflected in its ability to produce an 'ideal'form
under a particular set of conditions (Zakharov, 1992). The lower its stability, the greater the …

Although fluctuating asymmetry has become popular as a measure of developmental
instability, few studies have examined its developmental basis. We propose an approach to …

In spite of a decade of furious activity and an increasingly bewildering array of analytical
methods, essential requirements for a robust study of fluctuating asymmetry have not …

Fluctuating asymmetry consists of random deviations from perfect symmetry in populations
of organisms. It is a measure of developmental noise, which reflects a population's average …

Modularity describes the case where patterns of trait covariation are unevenly dispersed
across traits. Specifically, trait correlations are high and concentrated within subsets of …

Identifying the modular components of a configuration of landmarks is an important task of
morphometric analyses in evolutionary developmental biology. Modules are integrated …

Extreme environments are closely associated with phenotypic evolution, yet the
mechanisms behind this relationship are poorly understood. Several themes and …