The encoded biosynthesis of proteins provides the ultimate paradigm for high-fidelity
synthesis of long polymers of defined sequence and composition, but it is limited to …

Over 20 years ago, the pyrrolysine encoding translation system was discovered in specific
archaea. Our Review provides an overview of how the once obscure pyrrolysyl-tRNA …

Over 500 natural and synthetic amino acids have been genetically encoded in the last two
decades. Incorporating these noncanonical amino acids into proteins enables many …

Over the past 16 years, genetic code expansion and reprogramming in living organisms has
been transformed by advances that leverage the unique properties of pyrrolysyl-tRNA …

Our understanding of the complex molecular processes of living organisms at the molecular
level is growing exponentially. This knowledge, together with a powerful arsenal of tools for …

Directed evolution of orthogonal aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases (AARSs) enables site-specific
installation of noncanonical amino acids (ncAAs) into proteins. Traditional evolution …

The absence of orthogonal aminoacyl-transfer RNA (tRNA) synthetases that accept non-l-α-
amino acids is a primary bottleneck hindering the in vivo translation of sequence-defined …

Expansion of the genetic code with nonstandard amino acids (nsAAs) has enabled
biosynthesis of proteins with diverse new chemistries. However, this technology has been …

The goal of xenobiology is to design biological systems endowed with unusual biochemical
functions, whereas enzymology concerns the study of enzymes, the workhorses of …

Virtually all natural proteins are built from only 20 amino acids, and while this makes
possible all the functions they perform, the ability to encode other amino acids selected for …