Abstract Toll-like receptor (TLR) 4 belongs to the TLR family of receptors inducing pro-
inflammatory responses to invading pathogens. TLR4 is activated by lipopolysaccharide …

The cytotoxic T-lymphocyte–associated antigen 4 (CTLA-4)/B7 and programmed death 1
(PD-1)/programmed cell death-ligand 1 (PD-L1) are two most representative immune …

Since nuclear factor of κ‐light chain of enhancer‐activated B cells (NF‐κB) was discovered
in 1986, extraordinary efforts have been made to understand the function and regulating …

Dynamic interactions between gut microbiota and a host's innate and adaptive immune
systems are essential in maintaining intestinal homeostasis and inhibiting inflammation. Gut …

The successful clinical application of immune checkpoint blockade (ICB) and chimeric
antigen receptor T cells (CAR-T) therapeutics has attracted extensive attention to …

Diet-induced metabolic endotoxemia is an important factor in the development of many
chronic diseases in animals and man. The gut epithelium is an efficient barrier that prevents …

The human innate and adaptive immune systems consist of effector cells producing
cytokines (interleukins, interferons, chemokines, and numerous other mediators). Usually, a …

Macrophages play an important role in tissue homeostasis, tissue remodeling, immune
response, and progression of cancer. Consequently, macrophages exhibit significant …

The intestinal barrier is complex and consists of multiple layers, and it provides a physical
and functional barrier to the transport of luminal contents to systemic circulation. While the …

Tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) promote metastasis and inhibit T cells, but
macrophages can be polarized to kill cancer cells. Macrophage polarization could thus be a …