There are over 15 disease-modifying drugs that have been approved over the last 20 years
for the treatment of relapsing–remitting multiple sclerosis (MS), but there are limited …

Cytokines provide cells with the ability to communicate with one another and orchestrate
complex multicellular behaviour. There is an emerging understanding of the role that …

Neuroinflammation is one of the host defensive mechanisms through which the nervous
system protects itself from pathogenic and or infectious insults. Moreover, neuroinflammation …

It is uncontested that perivascular spaces play critical roles in maintaining homeostasis and
priming neuroinflammation. However, despite more than a century of intense research on …

Abnormal production of inflammatory mediators is believed to play an important role in the
pathogenesis of psoriasis. Emerging data, both in mice and in humans, put the spotlight on a …

The presence of the blood–brain barrier (BBB) restricts the movement of soluble mediators
and leukocytes from the periphery to the central nervous system (CNS). Leukocyte entry into …

Recent findings in the animal model for multiple sclerosis (MS), experimental autoimmune
encephalomyelitis, implicate a novel CD4+ T-cell subset (TH17), characterized by the …

Understanding of autoimmune diseases, including multiple sclerosis, has expanded
considerably in recent years. New insights have been provided by not only animal models …

The key roles of toll-like receptors (TLRs) as mediators of the detection and responses of
immune cells to invading pathogens are well known. There are at least 13 mammalian TLRs …

Background Repeated subcutaneous injections of a monoclonal antibody against the p40
subunit of interleukins 12 and 23, ustekinumab, were used to treat patients with relapsing …