Inflammation occurs as a result of exposure of tissues and organs to harmful stimuli such as
microbial pathogens, irritants, or toxic cellular components. The primary physical …

Macrophages are important players in the fight against viral, bacterial, fungal and parasitic
infections. From a resting state they may undertake two activation pathways, the classical …

Parkinson's disease (PD) is the second most common neurodegenerative disease, after
Alzheimer's disease. The potential causes of PD remain uncertain, but recent studies …

Midbrain dopamine (mDA) neurons constitute a heterogenous group of cells that have been
intensely studied, not least because their degeneration causes major symptoms in …

Microglial cells are responsible for immune surveillance within the CNS. They respond to
noxious stimuli by releasing inflammatory mediators and mounting an effective inflammatory …

Stochastic damage to cellular macromolecules and organelles is thought to be a driving
force behind aging and associated degenerative changes. However, stress response …

Immune changes occur in all neurodegenerative conditions, but there are significant
differences between diseases. For Parkinson's disease (PD), the immune system …

Most acute and chronic neurodegenerative conditions are accompanied by
neuroinflammation; yet the exact nature of the inflammatory processes and whether they …

Idiopathic Parkinson's disease (PD) represents a complex interaction between the inherent
vulnerability of the nigrostriatal dopaminergic system, a possible genetic predisposition, and …

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by a dramatic loss
of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra (SN). Among the many pathogenic …