During the COVID-19 pandemic, mRNA (mRNA) vaccines emerged as leading vaccine
candidates in a record time. Nonreplicating mRNA (NRM) and self-amplifying mRNA (SAM) …

Background mRNA vaccines hold great potential as therapeutic techniques against viral
infections due to their efficacy, safety, and large-scale production. mRNA vaccines offer …

The design of Pfizer/BioNTech and Moderna mRNA vaccines involves many different types
of optimizations. Proper optimization of vaccine mRNA can reduce dosage required for each …

In vitro transcribed (IVT) mRNA has recently come into focus as a potential new drug class to
deliver genetic information. Such synthetic mRNA can be engineered to transiently express …

A new method has been developed that makes it possible to site-specifically incorporate
unnatural amino acids into proteins. Synthetic amino acids were incorporated into the …

The genetic code, which defines the amino acid sequence of a protein, also contains
information that influences the rate and efficiency of translation. Neither the mechanisms nor …

Although chemists can synthesize virtually any small organic molecule, our ability to
rationally manipulate the structures of proteins is quite limited, despite their involvement in …

The fidelity of biological information flow is critical. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) replication,
with its attendant proofreading and repair processes, has an error level in the range of 10-8 …

Background Direct synthesis of genes is rapidly becoming the most efficient way to make
functional genetic constructs and enables applications such as codon optimization, RNAi …

The translation machinery recognizes codons that enter the ribosomal A site with
remarkable accuracy to ensure that polypeptide synthesis proceeds with a minimum of …