Virus-like particles (VLPs) are nanostructures assemble from viral proteins. Besides widely
used for vaccine development, VLPs have also been explored as nanocarriers for cargo …

Ca2+ is one of the most universal and versatile signaling molecules and is involved in
almost every aspect of cellular processes. Viruses are adept at utilizing the universal Ca2+ …

Over the last decade, there has been significant advances in the understanding of the cross-
talk between metabolism and immune responses. It is now evident that immune cell effector …

As discussed in detail in other chapters of this review, chronic hepatitis B (HBV) infection is a
major risk factor for hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Most HCCs complicate the evolution of …

Mitochondria are multifunctional organelles with diverse roles including energy production
and distribution, apoptosis, eliciting host immune response, and causing diseases and …

Despite the existence of effective vaccines, HBV infection remains a major health problem
with 2 billion people infected worldwide. Among them, 350 million are chronically infected, a …

Ions are ubiquitous in nature. They play a key role for many biological processes on the
molecular scale, from molecular interactions, to mechanical properties, to folding, to self …

The hepatitis B virus capsid represents a promising therapeutic target. Experiments suggest
the capsid must be flexible to function; however, capsid structure and dynamics have not …

A fundamental step in the replication of a viral particle is the self-assembly of its rigid shell
(capsid) from its constituent proteins. Capsids play a vital role in genome replication and …

Calcium, as a second intracellular messenger, participate in various physiological and
biochemical processes, including cell growth and proliferation, energy metabolism …