We assess evidence relevant to Earth's equilibrium climate sensitivity per doubling of
atmospheric CO2, characterized by an effective sensitivity S. This evidence includes …

Ocean acidification may have severe consequences for marine ecosystems; however,
assessing its future impact is difficult because laboratory experiments and field observations …

Abstract The Last Glacial Maximum (LGM), one of the best studied palaeoclimatic intervals,
offers an excellent opportunity to investigate how the climate system responds to changes in …

Climate models have continued to be developed and improved since the AR4, and many
models have been extended into Earth System models by including the representation of …

This chapter addresses the biogeochemical cycles of carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4),
and nitrous oxide (N2O). The three greenhouse gases have increased in the atmosphere …

The magnitude of global cooling during the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM, the coldest
multimillennial interval of the last glacial period) is an important constraint for evaluating …

There is large uncertainty about the magnitude of warming and how rainfall patterns will
change in response to any given scenario of future changes in atmospheric composition and …

Abstract Theory and climate modelling suggest that the sensitivity of Earth's climate to
changes in radiative forcing could depend on the background climate. However …

Impacts of global climate change on terrestrial ecosystems are imperfectly constrained by
ecosystem models and direct observations. Pervasive ecosystem transformations occurred …

In the modern climate, the ocean below 2 km is mainly filled by waters sinking into the abyss
around Antarctica and in the North Atlantic. Paleoproxies indicate that waters of North …