In chronic infections and in cancer, persistent antigen stimulation under suboptimal
conditions can lead to the induction of T-cell exhaustion. Exhausted T cells are …

The upregulation of immune checkpoint molecules, such as programmed cell death protein
1 (PD1) and cytotoxic T lymphocyte antigen 4 (CTLA4), on immune cells occurs during acute …

PD-1 as an immune checkpoint molecule down-regulates T cell activity during immune
responses in order to prevent autoimmune tissue damage. In chronic infections or tumors …

Costimulatory and inhibitory receptors play a key role in regulating immune responses to
infections. Recent translation of knowledge about inhibitory receptors such as CTLA-4 and …

Unicellular eukaryotes of the genus Leishmania are collectively responsible for a
heterogeneous group of diseases known as leishmaniasis. The visceral form of …

There have been multiple recent advances regarding tools for the control and prevention of
canine leishmaniosis (CanL), including new preventative vaccines. In this review, these …

Leishmaniasis, a neglected parasitic disease caused by a unicellular protozoan of the
genus Leishmania, is transmitted through the bite of a female sandfly. The disease remains …

Leishmania infantum is a vector-borne zoonotic disease transmitted by phlebotomine sand
flies and dogs are considered the main reservoir of the parasite. Feline leishmaniosis (FeL) …

The diagnosis of canine leishmaniosis (CanL) is complex due to its variable clinical
manifestations and laboratory findings. The availability of vaccines to prevent CanL has …

Leishmaniosis caused by Leishmania infantum is a vector-borne zoonotic disease endemic
in southern Europe, but which is spreading northwards. Millions of dogs, cats and other non …