Ischemic stroke refers to the disorder of blood supply of local brain tissue caused by various
reasons. It has high morbidity and mortality worldwide. Astrocytes are the most abundant …

An optimally functional brain requires both excitatory and inhibitory inputs that are regulated
and balanced. A perturbation in the excitatory/inhibitory balance—as is the case in some …

The antiporter system xc− imports the amino acid cystine, the oxidized form of cysteine, into
cells with a 1: 1 counter-transport of glutamate. It is composed of a light chain, xCT, and a …

Müller cells, the major type of glial cells in the retina, are responsible for the homeostatic and
metabolic support of retinal neurons. By mediating transcellular ion, water, and bicarbonate …

N-acetylcysteine (NAC) is recognized for its role in acetaminophen overdose and as a
mucolytic. Over the past decade, there has been growing evidence for the use of NAC in …

Virtually all pathogenic stimuli activate Müller cells. Reactive Müller cells exert protective
and toxic effects on photoreceptors and neurons. They contribute to oxidative stress and …

Basal extracellular glutamate sampled in vivo is present in micromolar concentrations in the
extracellular space outside the synaptic cleft, and neither the origin nor the function of this …

Glial cells of the nervous system directly influence neuronal and synaptic activities by
releasing transmitters. However, the physiological consequences of this glial transmitter …

Astrocytes can release the excitatory transmitter glutamate which is capable of modulating
activity in nearby neurons. This astrocytic glutamate release can occur through six known …

The brain is among the major organs generating large amounts of reactive oxygen species
and is especially susceptible to oxidative stress. Glutathione (GSH) plays critical roles as an …