Elite athletic competitions have separate male and female events due to men's physical
advantages in strength, speed, and endurance so that a protected female category with …

Hormones are largely responsible for the integrated communication of several physiological
systems responsible for modulating cellular growth and development. Although the specific …

Estrogens and androgens influence the growth and maintenance of the mammalian
skeleton and are responsible for its sexual dimorphism. Estrogen deficiency at menopause …

Muscles and bones are intricately connected tissues displaying marked co-variation during
development, growth, aging, and in many diseases. While the diagnosis and treatment of …

Skeletal muscle health is a strong predictor of overall health and longevity. Pathologies
affecting skeletal muscle such as cancer cachexia, intensive care unit treatment, muscular …

Myostatin, a member of the transforming growth factor-β superfamily, is a potent negative
regulator of skeletal muscle growth and is conserved in many species, from rodents to …

Maintenance of skeletal muscle mass throughout the life course is key for the regulation of
health, with physical activity a critical component of this, in part, due to its influence upon key …

Sex steroids are chief regulators of gender differences in the skeleton, and male gender is
one of the strongest protective factors against osteoporotic fractures. This advantage in bone …

Sarcopenia is distinct from normal muscle atrophy in that it is closely related to a shift in the
muscle fiber type. Deficiency of the anabolic action of androgen on skeletal muscles is …

The complexity and redundancy of the endocrine pathways during recovery related to
anabolic function in the body belie an oversimplistic approach to its study. The purpose of …