Costs of defense are central to our understanding of interactions between organisms and
their environment, and defensive phenotypes of plants have long been considered to be …

Plant biologists have long recognized that host defence against parasites and pathogens
can be divided into two conceptually different components: the ability to limit parasite burden …

Hosts can in principle employ two different strategies to defend themselves against
parasites: resistance and tolerance. Animals typically exhibit considerable genetic variation …

Herbivores can consume significant amounts of plant biomass in many environments. Yet
plants are not defenseless against such attack. Although defenses might benefit plants in the …

▪ Abstract Recent theoretical studies suggest that the ability to tolerate consumer damage
can be an important adaptive response by plants to selection imposed by consumers …

We surveyed the literature published since 1985 for evidence of natural selection and
heritability in vegetative functional traits and performance. Our goals were to (1) review …

▪ Abstract Ecologists and evolutionary biologists are broadly interested in how the
interactions among organisms influence their abundance, distribution, phenotypes, and …

Background Fighting and controlling epidemic and endemic diseases represents a
considerable cost to livestock production. Much research is dedicated to breeding disease …

Co-evolution between plants and their natural enemies is generally believed to have
generated much of the Earth's biological diversity. A process analogous to co-evolution …

Tolerance and resistance are two different plant defense strategies against herbivores.
Empirical evidence in natural populations reveals that individual plants allocate resources …