Abstract Background By 27 June 2020, almost half a million people had died due to COVID-
19 infections. The susceptibility and severity of infection vary significantly across nations …

Interferons (IFNs) are a family of cytokines with diverse functions in host resistance to
pathogens and in immune regulation. Type II IFN, ie IFN-γ, is widely recognized as a major …

Coronaviruses may exert severely negative effects on the mortality and morbidity of birds
and mammals including humans and domestic animals. Most recently CoVID-19 has killed …

Tuberculosis, which is caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb), is among the most
pressing worldwide problems. Mtb uniquely interacts with innate immune cells through …

Toxoplasmosis has been categorized as one of the long-lasting protozoan parasitic
infections. It affects almost one-third of the world's population. In recent years, several …

The breakthrough infection following COVID-19 vaccination has been a subject of concern
recently. Evidence suggests that COVID-19 vaccine efficacy diminishes over time due to …

Toxoplasma gondii has a very wide host range and infects all warm-blooded animals
including humans. The disease causes great economic losses both in animals and humans …

The symptomatology of COVID-19 is dependent on the immune status and the cytokine
response of the host. The cytokine level of the host is influenced by the presence of chronic …

Background Parasites are well-known immune-modulators. They inhibit some aspects of the
immune system to ensure persistence inside the host for a long time; meanwhile, they …

Upon viral infection, the host cell recognizes the invasion through a number of pattern
recognition receptors. Melanoma differentiation associated gene 5 (MDA5) and retinoic acid …