Localized or topical administration of drugs may be considered as a potential approach for
overcoming the problems caused by the various biological barriers encountered in drug …

Proper functioning of the neural retina relies on the unique retinal environment regulated by
the blood–retinal barrier (BRB), which restricts the passage of solutes, fluids, and toxic …

Recent years have seen the creation and popularization of various complex in vitro models
(CIVMs), such as organoids and organs-on-chip, as a technology with the potential to …

Diabetic retinopathy (DR) is a microvascular disorder characterized by inner blood-retinal
barrier (iBRB) breakdown and irreversible vision loss. While the symptoms of DR are known …

The outer blood–retinal barrier (oBRB) provides an optimal environment for the function of
the photoreceptor by regulating the exchange of molecules between subretinal space and …

The human brain is a complex organ composed of many different types of cells
interconnected to create an organized system able to efficiently process information …

The maintenance of body homeostasis relies heavily on physiological barriers. Dysfunction
of these barriers can lead to various pathological processes, including increased exposure …

During diabetic retinopathy (DR) progression, the retina undergoes various metabolic
changes, including hypoxia-signalling cascade induction in the cells of retinal pigmented …

Retinal cells within neurovascular units generate the blood–retinal barrier (BRB) to regulate
the local retinal microenvironment and to limit access to inflammatory cells. Breakdown of …

The complexity of the human brain creates significant, almost insurmountable challenges for
neurological drug development. Advanced in vitro platforms are increasingly enabling …