Reward-related cues are an important part of our daily life as they often influence and guide
our actions. This paper reviews one of the experimental paradigms used to study the effects …

Opioids are among the most effective analgesics available and are the first choice in the
treatment of acute severe pain. However, partial efficacy, a tendency to produce tolerance …

The feeding process is required for basic life, influenced by environment cues and tightly
regulated according to demands of the internal milieu by regulatory brain circuits. Although …

Pavlovian stimuli exert a range of effects on behavior from simple conditioned reflexes, such
as salivation, to altering the vigor and direction of instrumental actions. It is currently …

Headaches are highly disabling and are among the most common neurological disorders
worldwide. Despite the high prevalence of headache, therapeutic options are limited. We …

For over two decades, phasic activity in midbrain dopamine neurons was considered
synonymous with the prediction error in temporal-difference reinforcement learning. 1–4 …

Outcome-specific Pavlovian-instrumental transfer (PIT) demonstrates the way that reward-
related cues influence choice between instrumental actions. The nucleus accumbens shell …

Pathological avoidance of benign stimuli is a hallmark of anxiety and related disorders, and
exposure-based treatments have often encouraged the removal of avoidance, or safety …

Although significant progress has been made in understanding the behavioral and brain
mechanisms for motivational systems, much less is known about competition between …

This paper is the thirty-eighth consecutive installment of the annual review of research
concerning the endogenous opioid system. It summarizes papers published during 2015 …