Avoidance is typically considered a maladaptive behavioral response to excessive fear and
anxiety, leading to the maintenance of anxiety disorders. Exposure is a core element of …

Fast-scan cyclic voltammetry (FSCV) has been used for over 20 years to study rapid
neurotransmission in awake and behaving animals. These experiments were first carried out …

INTRODUCTION The drive to seek and experience reward is conserved across species and,
in mammals, involves interactions between subcortical dopaminergic systems and limbic …

Neurotransmitters and neuromodulators mediate communication between neurons and
other cell types; knowledge of release dynamics is critical to understanding their …

The ability to predict favorable outcomes using environmental cues is an essential part of
learned behavior. Dopamine neurons in the midbrain encode such stimulus-reward …

Neurotransmitters are chemicals that are secreted by neurons and relay messages to target
cells. The goal of in vivo electrochemistry is to provide a real-time view of neurotransmitters …

The dopamine projection to the nucleus accumbens has been implicated in behaviors
directed toward the acquisition and consumption of natural rewards. The neurochemical …

It is widely held that dopamine signaling encodes predictions of future rewards and such
predictions are regularly used to drive behavior, but the relationship between these two is …

It is estimated that nearly a third of people who abuse drugs started with prescription opioid
medicines. Approximately, 11.5 million Americans used prescription drugs recreationally in …

Among the neurotransmitters involved in addiction, dopamine (DA) is clearly the best known.
The critical role of DA in addiction is supported by converging evidence that has been …