A ubiquitous biological material, keratin represents a group of insoluble, usually high-sulfur
content and filament-forming proteins, constituting the bulk of epidermal appendages such …

The turtle carapace, the top dorsal part of the shell, is a remarkable multi-scale dermal armor
that has evolved to withstand various types of high-stress events encountered in nature. This …

In all amniotes specialized intermediate filament keratins (IF‐keratins), in addition to keratin‐
associated and corneous proteins form the outermost cornified layer of the epidermis. Only …

Keratin is a global class of biological material, which represents a group of cysteine-rich
filament-forming proteins. They serve as a shielding layer for the epidermal appendages like …

The epidermis of vertebrates forms an extended organ to protect and exchange gas, water,
and organic molecules with aquatic and terrestrial environments. Herein, the processes of …

During land adaptation of the integument in tetrapods, an efficient stratum corneum was
originated through the evolution of numerous corneous proteins in addition to the framework …

The evolution of reptiles, birds, and mammals was associated with the origin of unique
integumentary structures. Studies on lizards, chicken, and humans have suggested that the …

The reptile skin is a barrier against water loss and pathogens and an armor for mechanical
damages. The integument of reptiles consists of two main layers: the epidermis and the …

Epidermal appendages of birds and reptiles, including claws, feathers, scales, and setae,
are primarily composed of alpha keratins (KRTs) and corneous beta-proteins (CBPs). A …

Despite being widely utilized in the production of cultural objects, keratinous hard tissues,
such as horn, baleen, and tortoiseshell, rarely survive in archaeological contexts unless …