Cellular associations in the bone microenvironment are involved in modulating the balance
between bone remodeling and resorption, which is necessary for maintaining a normal bone …

Bone tissue scaffolds made from either natural or synthetic polymers are employed to
promote bone healing. However, lack of sufficient or poor mechanical properties such as low …

Platelet rich plasma (PRP) represents a relatively new approach in regenerative medicine. It
is obtained from patient's own blood and contains different growth factors and other …

The transforming growth factor beta (TGF‐β) family forms a group of three isoforms, TGF‐β1,
TGF‐β2, and TGF‐β3, with their structure formed by interrelated dimeric polypeptide chains …

Macrophages are present in nearly all tissues and are critical for development, homeostasis,
and regeneration. Resident tissue macrophages of bone, termed osteal macrophages, are …

Following severe tissue injury, patients are exposed to various danger‐and microbe‐
associated molecular patterns, which provoke a strong activation of the neutrophil defense …

Delayed bone fracture healing and the formation of nonunions represent an important
clinical problem, particularly in polytrauma patients who suffer from posttraumatic systemic …

Inflammation is an immediate response that plays a critical role in healing after fracture or
injury to bone. However, in certain clinical contexts, such as in inflammatory diseases or in …

In patients who were treated with exogenous BMP-2 to repair bone fractures or defects, the
levels of the inflammatory cytokines such as TNF-α and IL-1β in sera are significantly …

While it is well known that the presence of lymphocytes and cytokines are important for
fracture healing, the exact role of the various cytokines expressed by cells of the immune …