The life cycle of most viruses involves the release of particles into the extracellular space.
Consequently, the study of virus egress as well as virus entry has focused almost exclusively …

The paradigm that viruses can move directly, and in some cases covertly, between
contacting target cells is now well established for several virus families. The underlying …

Dendritic cells can capture and transfer retroviruses in vitro across synaptic cell-cell contacts
to uninfected cells, a process called trans-infection. Whether trans-infection contributes to …

Virus transmission can occur either by a cell-free mode through the extracellular space or by
cell-to-cell transmission involving direct cell-to-cell contact. The factors that determine …

Retroviruses such as the human immunodeficiency virus, human T-cell lymphotropic virus
and murine leukaemia virus are believed to spread via sites of cell–cell contact designated …

Siglec-1 (sialoadhesin, CD169) is a surface receptor on human cells that mediates trans-
enhancement of HIV-1 infection through recognition of sialic acid moieties in virus …

Page 1 Fields VIROLOGY VOLUME 4: Fundamentals SEVENTH EDITION EDITORS-IN-CHIEF
Peter M. Howley David M. Knipe VOLUME ASSOCIATE EDITORS LW Enquist Jeffrey I. Cohen …

ABSTRACT HIV-1 has to overcome physical barriers posed by host cell restriction factors
(RFs) for efficient replication. Some RFs, including Trim5α and tetherin, trigger antiviral …

HIV-1 recruits cellular endosomal sorting complexes required for transport (ESCRTs) to bud
virions from the membrane. Disruption of the viral nucleocapsid (NC) domain integrity affects …

Together with the Gag protein, the Env glycoprotein is a major retroviral structural protein
and is essential for forming infectious virus particles. Env is synthesized, processed, and …