The human macula uniquely concentrates three carotenoids: lutein, zeaxanthin, and meso-
zeaxanthin. Lutein and zeaxanthin must be obtained from dietary sources such as green …

Retinitis pigmentosa (RP) encompasses a group of inherited retinal dystrophies
characterized by the primary degeneration of rod and cone photoreceptors. RP is a leading …

Retinitis pigmentosa (RP) is a heterogeneous set of inherited retinopathies with many
disease‐causing genes, many known mutations, and highly varied clinical consequences …

Diabetic retinopathy (DR), one of the leading causes of preventable blindness, has been
considered a microcirculatory disease of the retina. However, there is emerging evidence to …

Retinal pigment epithelial cells (RPE) constitute a simple layer of cuboidal cells that are
strategically situated behind the photoreceptor (PR) cells. The inconspicuousness of this …

As succinctly summarized by Wolf, 1 lack of vitamin A (all-trans-retinol) was recognized by
ancient Egyptians as causing a visual deficiency involving the retina and cornea that could …

Vitamin A is an essential fat-soluble vitamin that occurs in various chemical forms. It is
essential for several physiological processes. Either hyper-or hypovitaminosis can be …

Chronic complications of diabetes are due to myriad disorders of numerous metabolic
pathways that are responsible for most of the morbidity and mortality associated with the …

The interphotoreceptor matrix (IPM) is a highly organized structure with interconnected
domains surrounding cone and rod photoreceptor cells and extends throughout the …

Purpose: To review the current state for diagnosis and management of autoimmune
retinopathy. Methods: A review of the literature was performed, encompassing autoimmune …