The basal ganglia are subcortical nuclei controlling voluntary actions and have been
implicated in Parkinson's disease (PD). The prevailing model of basal ganglia function …

Involuntary movements, or dyskinesia, represent a debilitating complication of levodopa (L-
dopa) therapy for Parkinson's disease (PD). L-dopa-induced dyskinesia (LID) are ultimately …

The lamprey belongs to the phylogenetically oldest group of vertebrates that diverged from
the mammalian evolutionary line 560 million years ago. A comparison between the lamprey …

Schultz, Wolfram. Predictive reward signal of dopamine neurons. J. Neurophysiol. 80: 1–27,
1998. The effects of lesions, receptor blocking, electrical self-stimulation, and drugs of abuse …

The hypothesis that dopamine is important for reward has been proposed in a number of
forms, each of which has been challenged. Normally, rewarding stimuli such as food, water …

The discovery of cannabinoid receptors and subsequent identification of their endogenous
ligands (endocannabinoids) in early 1990s have greatly accelerated research on …

Recent neurophysiological studies reveal that neurons in certain brain structures carry
specific signals about past and future rewards. Dopamine neurons display a short-latency …

The endocannabinoids are a family of lipid messengers that engage the cell surface
receptors that are targeted by Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol, the active principle in marijuana …

There are many advantages to defining emotions as states elicited by reinforcers, with the
states having a set of different functions. This approach leads towards an understanding of …

▪ Abstract Although the mammalian basal ganglia have long been implicated in motor
behavior, it is generally recognized that the behavioral functions of this subcortical group of …