Rewards are crucial objects that induce learning, approach behavior, choices, and
emotions. Whereas emotions are difficult to investigate in animals, the learning function is …

Classical Hebbian learning puts the emphasis on joint pre-and postsynaptic activity, but
neglects the potential role of neuromodulators. Since neuromodulators convey information …

The basal ganglia are a chain of subcortical nuclei that facilitate action selection. Two striatal
projection systems—so-called direct and indirect pathways—form the functional backbone of …

Recent work has advanced our knowledge of phasic dopamine reward prediction error
signals. The error signal is bidirectional, reflects well the higher order prediction error …

Many organisms, especially humans, are characterized by their capacity for intentional, goal-
directed actions. However, similar behaviours often proceed automatically, as habitual …

Recent neurophysiological studies reveal that neurons in certain brain structures carry
specific signals about past and future rewards. Dopamine neurons display a short-latency …

▪ Abstract Although the mammalian basal ganglia have long been implicated in motor
behavior, it is generally recognized that the behavioral functions of this subcortical group of …

Many lesion studies report an amazing variety of deficits in behavioral functions that cannot
possibly be encoded in great detail by the relatively small number of midbrain dopamine …

The dorsal striatum, which consists of the caudate and putamen, is the gateway to the basal
ganglia. It receives convergent excitatory afferents from cortex and thalamus and forms the …

Dopamine shapes a wide variety of psychomotor functions. This is mainly accomplished by
modulating cortical and thalamic glutamatergic signals impinging upon principal medium …