Modern vaccines have largely shifted from using whole, killed or attenuated pathogens to
being based on subunit components. Since this diminishes immunogenicity, vaccine …

Type I interferons (IFNs) have diverse effects on innate and adaptive immune cells during
infection with viruses, bacteria, parasites and fungi, directly and/or indirectly through the …

Chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cell therapies have successfully treated hematological
malignancies. Macrophages have also gained attention as an immunotherapy owing to their …

Patients infected with SARS-CoV-2 show a wide spectrum of clinical manifestations ranging
from mild febrile illness and cough up to acute respiratory distress syndrome, multiple organ …

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disease and the most
common cause of dementia. Deposition of amyloid‐β (Aβ) remains a hallmark feature of the …

The stimulation of Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) induces the
release of critical proinflammatory cytokines that are necessary to activate potent immune …

The interferon regulatory factor (IRF) family, consisting of nine members in mammals, was
identified in the late 1980s in the context of research into the type I interferon system …

Multicellular organisms possess very sophisticated defense mechanisms that are designed
to effectively counter the continual microbial insult of the environment within the vertebrate …

Sensing of pathogens by Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) induces an inflammatory response;
controlled responses confer immunity but uncontrolled responses cause harm. Here we …

Innate and adaptive immunity are the major defence mechanisms of higher organisms
against inherent and environmental threats. Innate immunity is present already in unicellular …