Adenylyl cyclases (ACs) catalyze the conversion of ATP to the ubiquitous second
messenger cAMP. Mammals possess nine isoforms of transmembrane ACs, dubbed AC1–9 …

Individuals with type 1 and advanced type 2 diabetes require daily insulin therapy to
maintain blood glucose levels in normoglycemic ranges to prevent associated morbidity and …

A “closed-loop” insulin delivery system that can mimic the dynamic and glucose-responsive
insulin secretion as islet β-cells is desirable for the therapy of type 1 and advanced type 2 …

Background The discovery of insulin in 1921 and its near-immediate clinical use initiated a
century of innovation. Advances extended across a broad front, from the stabilization of …

Background Hypoglycaemia, the frightening condition of low blood sugar, is a common
occurrence in people with diabetes using insulin therapy. The idea of protecting against …

Conspectus Insulin replacement therapy is an essential and effective treatment strategy for
controlling the blood glucose level (BGL) of people without sufficient endogenous insulin …

Although oral administration is favorable mode of insulin delivery, it is the most challenging
route, owing to poor oral bioavailability. In this study, a chitosan (CS)-based insulin delivery …

Insulin administration is necessary for patients with type 1 diabetes and advanced type 2
diabetes. However, there are many drawbacks associated with it, such as hypoglycemia and …

In recent years, therapeutic conjugates have attracted considerable attention as a new class
of drug due to their unique pharmacological properties, especially from the pharmaceutical …

Abstract Design of “first-generation” insulin analogues over the past 3 decades has provided
pharmaceutical formulations with tailored pharmacokinetic (PK) and pharmacodynamic (PD) …