The cytoplasm of bacterial cells is a highly crowded cellular compartment that possesses
considerable osmotic potential. As a result, and owing to the semipermeable nature of the …

Biological membranes are tricky to investigate. They are complex in terms of molecular
composition and structure, functional over a wide range of time scales, and characterized by …

The determination of the crystal structures of small-molecule transporters has shed light on
the conformational changes that take place during structural isomerization from outward-to …

Abstract Na+/Cl–-coupled biogenic amine transporters are the primary targets of therapeutic
and abused drugs, ranging from antidepressants to the psychostimulants cocaine and …

Fluctuations in environmental osmolarity are ubiquitous stress factors in many natural
habitats of microorganisms, as they inevitably trigger osmotically instigated fluxes of water …

In monoaminergic neurons, the vesicular transporters and the plasma membrane
transporters operate in a relay. Amphetamine and its congeners target this relay to elicit their …

Background Betaine is the trimethyl derivative of glycine and is normally present in human
plasma due to dietary intake and endogenous synthesis in liver and kidney. Betaine is …

Integral membrane proteins (IMPs) fulfill important physiological functions by providing cell–
environment, cell–cell and virus–host communication; nutrients intake; export of toxic …

Neurotransmitter/sodium symporters (NSSs) terminate synaptic signal transmission by Na+-
dependent reuptake of released neurotransmitters. Key conformational states have been …

Cation–chloride cotransporters (CCCs) mediate the electroneutral transport of chloride,
potassium and/or sodium across the membrane. They have critical roles in regulating cell …