Elastic strain energy that is stored and released from long, distal tendons such as the
Achilles during locomotion allows for muscle power amplification as well as for reduction of …

Objectives Musculoskeletal modeling is a powerful approach for studying the biomechanics
and energetics of locomotion. Australopithecus (A.) afarensis is among the best represented …

Developing the ability to habitually walk and run upright on two feet is one of the most
significant transformations to have occurred in human evolution. Many musculoskeletal …

There are no comparative, empirical studies of the energetic costs of feeding in mammals.
As a result, we lack physiological data to better understand the selection pressures on the …

Humans are unique among terrestrial mammals in our manner of walking and running,
reflecting 7 to 8 Ma of musculoskeletal evolution since diverging with the genus Pan. One …

Recent evidence indicates that human ancestors utilized a combination of quadrupedal
walking, climbing, and bipedal walking. Therefore, the origin of bipedalism may be linked to …

Compared to their closest ape relatives, humans walk bipedally with lower metabolic cost
(C) and less mechanical work to move their body center of mass (external mechanical work …

The form–function conceptual framework, which assumes a strong relationship between the
structure of a particular trait and its function, has been crucial for understanding …

The process of making stone tools, specifically knapping, is a hominin behaviour that
typically involves using the upper limb to manipulate a stone hammer and apply …

Humans walk with an upright posture on extended limbs during stance and with a double-
peaked vertical ground reaction force. Our closest living relatives, chimpanzees, are …