The review provides a comprehensive update (previous report: Chen R, Cros D, Curra A, Di
Lazzaro V, Lefaucheur JP, Magistris MR, et al. The clinical diagnostic utility of transcranial …

Work over the past 2 decades has led to substantial changes in our understanding of
dystonia pathophysiology. Three general abnormalities appear to underlie the …

Objectives: To provide a revised version of earlier guidelines published in 2006.
Background: Primary dystonias are chronic and often disabling conditions with a …

The review focuses on the clinical diagnostic utility of transcranial magnetic stimulation
(TMS). The central motor conduction time (CMCT) is a sensitive method to detect …

The pathophysiology of dystonia has been best studied in patients with focal hand dystonia.
A loss of inhibitory function has been demonstrated at spinal, brainstem and cortical levels …

Functional movement disorders (FMDs), known over time as “hysteria”,“dissociative”,“
conversion”,“somatoform”,“non-organic” and “psychogenic” disorders, are characterized by …

The diagnosis of PMDs should not be regarded as a diagnosis of exclusion. Careful clinical
assessment is critical, and imaging or electrophysiological studies may provide important …

Dystonias comprise a group of movement disorders that are characterized by involuntary
movements and postures. Insight into the nature of neuronal dysfunction has been provided …

The most common forms of dystonia are those that develop in adults and affect a relatively
isolated region of the body. Although these adult‐onset focal dystonias are most prevalent …

Much is known regarding the physical characteristics, comorbid symptoms, psychological
makeup, and neuropsychological performance of patients with functional neurological …