Predators affect prey by killing them directly (lethal effects) and by inducing costly
antipredator behaviours in living prey (risk effects). Risk effects can strongly influence prey …

Wild pigs (Sus scrofa) are widespread across many landscapes throughout the world and
are considered to be an invasive pest to agriculture and the environment, or conversely a …

Large carnivores can either directly influence ungulate populations or indirectly affect their
behaviour. Knowledge from European systems, in contrast to North American systems, on …

Over the last century, human activity has caused significant changes to the activity patterns
of many wildlife species. The wild boar is one species known to change its activity pattern …

Behavioral effects of living under predation risk may influence the dynamics of prey species
more than direct demographic effects. Human recreation, especially hunting, can also force …

Apex predators perform important functions that regulate ecosystems worldwide. However,
little is known about how ecosystem regulation by predators is influenced by human …

Habitat alteration by humans may change the supply of food and cover for wild ungulates,
but few studies have examined how these resources are utilised over time by individuals of …

Large mammalian herbivores significantly alter the functioning of a range of ecosystems
worldwide. One family of herbivores in particular, deer (Cervidae), have become widespread …

Primary objectives of national parks usually include both, the protection of natural processes
and species conservation. When these objectives conflict, as occurs because of the …

Large mammalian carnivores create areas perceived as having high and low risk by their
ungulate prey. Human activities can indirectly shape this landscape of fear by altering …