The mammalian retina provides an excellent opportunity to study glia–neuron interactions
and the interactions of glia with blood vessels. Three main types of glial cells are found in …

Resident microglial cells can be regarded as the immunological watchdogs of the brain and
the retina. They are active sensors of their neuronal microenvironment and rapidly respond …

Diabetic retinopathy (DR) is the leading cause of visual impairment in the working‐age
population of the Western world. The pathogenesis of DR is complex and several vascular …

Müller cells are active players in normal retinal function and in virtually all forms of retinal
injury and disease. Reactive Müller cells protect the tissue from further damage and …

Microglia, the resident immune cells of the brain and retina, are constantly engaged in the
surveillance of their surrounding neural tissue. During embryonic development they infiltrate …

Virtually all pathogenic stimuli activate Müller cells. Reactive Müller cells exert protective
and toxic effects on photoreceptors and neurons. They contribute to oxidative stress and …

Microglia cells are phagocytic sentinels in the CNS and in the retina required for neuronal
homeostasis and innate immune defense. Accumulating experimental evidence suggests …

Neurotrophic factors play key roles in the development and survival of neurons. The potent
neuroprotective effects of neurotrophic factors, including brain-derived neurotrophic factor …

Neural cell death is the main feature of all retinal degenerative disorders that lead to
blindness. Despite therapeutic advances, progression of retinal disease cannot always be …

One of the major complications in patients with diabetes is diabetic retinopathy (DR), a
leading cause of blindness worldwide. It takes several years before any clinical signs of …