Toxin–antitoxin systems are widespread in bacterial genomes. They are usually composed
of two elements: a toxin that inhibits an essential cellular process and an antitoxin that …

Many bacteria can infect and persist inside their hosts for long periods of time. This can be
due to immunosuppression of the host, immune evasion by the pathogen and/or ineffective …

Bacterial toxin-antitoxin (TA) modules are abundant genetic elements that encode a toxin
protein capable of inhibiting cell growth and an antitoxin that counteracts the toxin. The …

Bacterial persister cells constitute a subpopulation of genetically identical, metabolically
slow-growing cells that are highly tolerant of antibiotics and other environmental stresses …

In eukaryotes, ribosome profiling provides insight into the mechanism of protein synthesis at
the codon level. In bacteria, however, the method has been more problematic and no …

Almost all bacteria and many archaea contain genes whose expression inhibits cell growth
and may lead to cell death when overproduced, reminiscent of apoptotic genes in higher …

Phages are the most abundant entity in the biosphere and outnumber bacteria by a factor of
10. Phage DNA may also constitute 20% of bacterial genomes; however, its role is ill …

Toxin-antitoxin (TA) systems are widespread in bacteria, but their activation mechanisms
and bona fide targets remain largely unknown. Here, we characterize a type III TA system …

Bacterial populations produce persisters, cells that neither grow nor die in the presence of
bactericidal agents, and thus exhibit multidrug tolerance (MDT). The mechanisms of MDT …

Prokaryotic chromosomes code for toxin–antitoxin (TA) loci, often in multiple copies. In E.
coli, experimental evidence indicates that TA loci are stress-response elements that help …