Cancer immunotherapies targeting adaptive immune checkpoints have substantially
improved patient outcomes across multiple metastatic and treatment-refractory cancer types …

Cancer is a complex disease whose outcome depends largely on the cross-talk between the
tumor and its microenvironment. Here, we review the evolution of the field of tumor …

Cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) play a role in response to cancer treatment and
patient prognosis. CAFs show phenotypic and functional heterogeneity and differ widely in …

Bladder cancer is a highly prevalent disease and is associated with substantial morbidity,
mortality and cost. Environmental or occupational exposures to carcinogens, especially …

Cancer stem cells (CSCs) are self-renewing cells that facilitate tumor initiation, promote
metastasis, and enhance cancer therapy resistance. Transcriptomic analyses across many …

Immune checkpoint molecules, including inhibitory and stimulatory immune checkpoint
molecules, are defined as ligand–receptor pairs that exert inhibitory or stimulatory effects on …

Tumorigenesis is not only determined by the intrinsic properties of cancer cells but also by
their interactions with components of the tumor microenvironment (TME). Tumor‐associated …

Immune checkpoint inhibitors, including those targeting CTLA‐4/B7 and the PD‐1/PD‐L1
inhibitory pathways, are now available for clinical use in cancer patients, with other …

Urothelial carcinoma of the bladder comprises two long-recognized disease entities with
distinct molecular features and clinical outcome. Low-grade non-muscle-invasive tumours …

Macrophages are the most important phagocytes in vivo. However, the tumor
microenvironment can affect the function and polarization of macrophages and form tumor …