Adolescence (the stage between 10 and 24 years) is a period of life characterised by
heightened sensitivity to social stimuli and the increased need for peer interaction. The …

The dopamine hypothesis is the longest standing pathoetiologic theory of schizophrenia.
Because it was initially based on indirect evidence and findings in patients with established …

Depression is a significant public health problem, but its etiology and pathophysiology
remain poorly understood. Such incomplete understanding likely arises from the fact that …

In the 40 years since Aaron Beck first proposed his cognitive model of depression, the
elements of this model—biased attention, biased processing, biased thoughts and …

Early life stress (ELS), in the form of childhood maltreatment, abuse, or neglect, increases
the risk for psychiatric sequelae later in life. The neurobiology of response to early stress …

Dopamine (DA) and glutamate neurotransmission are strongly implicated in schizophrenia
pathophysiology. While most studies focus on contributions of neurons that release only DA …

Anhedonia, the loss of pleasure or interest in previously rewarding stimuli, is a core feature
of major depression. While theorists have argued that anhedonia reflects a reduced capacity …

Affective valence lies on a spectrum ranging from punishment to reward. The coding of such
spectra in the brain almost always involves opponency between pairs of systems or …

A wealth of evidence has implicated inflammation in the development of depression. Yet, the
heterogeneous nature of depression has impeded efforts to understand, prevent, and treat …

Stress can be defined as a brain–body reaction towards stimuli arising from the environment
or from internal cues that are interpreted as a disruption of homeostasis. The organization of …