The most commonly used treatment for Parkinson's disease (PD) is levodopa, prescribed in
conjunction with carbidopa. Virtually all patients with PD undergo dopamine replacement …

Dopamine (DA) receptor, a significant G protein-coupled receptor, is classified into two
families: D1-like (D1 and D5) and D2-like (D2, D3, and D4) receptor families, with further …

Neurotransmitters are considered as a fundamental regulator in the process of neuronal
growth, differentiation and survival. Parkinson's Disease (PD) occurs due to extensive …

Dyskinesia is a serious complication of Parkinson's disease during levodopa (L-DOPA)
treatment. The pathophysiology of L-DOPA-induced dyskinesia (LID) is complex and not …

Growing evidence indicates that microglia activation and a neuroinflammatory trigger
contribute to dopaminergic cell loss in Parkinson's disease (PD). Furthermore, increased …

Disabilities are estimated to occur in approximately 2% of survivors of traumatic brain injury
(TBI) worldwide, and disability may persist even decades after brain injury. Facilitation or …

Histamine is a biogenic amine playing a central role in allergy and peripheral inflammatory
reactions and acts as a neurotransmitter and neuromodulator in the brain. In the adult …

Parkinson's disease is associated with the loss of more than 40% of dopaminergic neurons
in the substantia nigra pars compacta. One of the therapeutic options for restoring striatal …

Rationale Dyskinesias induced by L-3, 4-dihydroxyphenylalanine, L-Dopa (LIDs), are the
major complication in the pharmacological treatment of Parkinson's disease. LIDs induce …

As tourette syndrome (TS) is a common neurobehavioral disorder, the primary symptoms of
which include behavioral stereotypies. Dysfunction of the substantia nigra–striatum network …