Multiple Sclerosis (MS) is considered the most frequent inflammatory demyelinating disease
of the central nervous system (CNS). It occurs with a variable prevalence across the world. A …

Natural immunoglobulin M (IgM) antibodies are pentameric or hexameric macro-
immunoglobulins and have been highly conserved during evolution. IgMs are initially …

The brain and the immune system are not fully formed at birth, but rather continue to mature
in response to the postnatal environment. The two-way interaction between the brain and …

Molluscs comprise the second largest phylum of animals (after arthropods), occurring in
virtually all habitats. Some are commercially important, a few are pests and some carry …

The vertebrate immune system is comprised of numerous distinct and interdependent
components. Every component has its own inherent protective value, and the final …

Parasites and infectious diseases are everywhere and represent some of the most potent
forces shaping the natural world. They affect almost every aspect imaginable in the life of …

Inflammation is a pervasive phenomenon that operates during severe perturbations of
homeostasis, such as infection, injury, and exposure to contaminants, and is triggered by …

The adaptive immune system (AIS) in mammals, which is centred on lymphocytes bearing
antigen receptors that are generated by somatic recombination, arose approximately 500 …

In the last two decades, the widespread application of genetic and genomic approaches has
revealed a bacterial world astonishing in its ubiquity and diversity. This review examines …

All metazoans possess innate immune defence system whereas parameters of the adaptive
immune system make their first appearance in the gnathostomata, the jawed vertebrates …