Type 2 immune responses are defined by the cytokines interleukin-4 (IL-4), IL-5, IL-9 and IL-
13, which can either be host protective or have pathogenic activity. Type 2 immunity …

The extracellular forms of the IL‐1 cytokines are active through binding to specific receptors
on the surface of target cells. IL‐1 ligands bind to the extracellular portion of their ligand …

The three-signal paradigm tries to capture how the innate immune system instructs adaptive
immune responses in three well-defined actions:(1) presentation of antigenic peptides in the …

Background Atopic dermatitis (AD) is a chronic inflammatory disease caused by the complex
interaction of genetic, immune and environmental factors. There have many recent …

Patients with asthma, a major public health problem, are at high risk for serious disease from
influenza virus infection, but the pathogenic mechanisms by which influenza A causes …

Although interleukin-18 is structurally homologous to IL-1 and its receptor belongs to the IL-
1R/Toll-like receptor (TLR) superfamily, its function is quite different from that of IL-1. IL-18 is …

Abstract T helper type 1 (TH1) cell development involves interferon-γ (IFN-γ) signaling
through signal transducer and activator of transcription 1 (STAT1) and interleukin-12 (IL-12) …

and by CD40/CD40 ligand (CD40L and CD154) interactions. 18–22 Once adherent, the
monocytes transmigrate into the tunica intima, the innermost layer of the arterial wall …

A large body of evidence indicates the existence of functionally polarized CD4+ T‐cell
responses based on their profile of cytokine secretion. Type 1 T helper (Th1) cells produce …

Abstract Interleukin-18 (IL-18), a recently described member of the IL-1 cytokine superfamily,
is now recognized as an important regulator of innate and acquired immune responses. IL …