Venoms are one of the most convergent of animal traits known, and encompass a much
greater taxonomic and functional diversity than is commonly appreciated. This knowledge …

Cnidarians are the oldest extant lineage of venomous animals. Despite their simple
anatomy, they are capable of subduing or repelling prey and predator species that are far …

The Cnidaria phylum includes organisms that are among the most venomous animals. The
Anthozoa class includes sea anemones, hard corals, soft corals and sea pens. The …

Venom is a complex trait with substantial inter-and intraspecific variability resulting from
strong selective pressures acting on the expression of many toxic proteins. However …

Reverse genetics and next‐generation sequencing unlocked a new era in biology. It is now
possible to identify an animal (s) with the unique biology most relevant to a particular …

Cnidarians have been known since ancient times for the painful stings they induce to
humans. The effects of the stings range from skin irritation to cardiotoxicity and can result in …

A central goal in biology is to determine the ways in which evolution repeats itself. One of the
most remarkable examples in nature of convergent evolutionary novelty is animal venom …

Sea anemones produce venoms of exceptional molecular diversity, with at least 17 different
molecular scaffolds reported to date. These venom components have traditionally been …

Ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) are diverse and ubiquitous, and their ability to sting is
familiar to many of us. However, their venoms remain largely unstudied. We provide the first …

The origin of nervous systems has traditionally been discussed within two conceptual
frameworks. Input–output models stress the sensory-motor aspects of nervous systems …