Insects combat infection by mounting powerful immune responses that are mediated by
hemocytes, the fat body, the midgut, the salivary glands and other tissues. Foreign …

Nature has been the source of life-changing and-saving medications for centuries. Aspirin,
penicillin and morphine are prime examples of Nature׳ s gifts to medicine. These discoveries …

To fight infectious diseases, host immune defenses are employed at multiple levels. Sanitary
behavior, such as pathogen avoidance and removal, acts as a first line of defense to prevent …

Grooming is a well-recognized, multipurpose, behavior in arthropods and vertebrates. In this
paper, we review the literature to highlight the physical function, neurophysiological …

The evolution of group living requires that individuals limit the inherent risks of parasite
infection. To this end, group living insects have developed a unique capability of mounting …

Hygienic behavior in honey bees, Apis mellifera, has been studied for over 80 years with the
aim of understanding mechanisms of pathogen and parasite resistance and colony health …

Wasps, members of the order Hymenoptera, are distributed in different parts of the world,
including Brazil, Thailand, Japan, Korea, and Argentina. The lifestyles of the wasps are …

External immune defence, such as antimicrobial secretions, is not generally viewed as part
of the immune system. Nevertheless, it constitutes a first barrier to pathogens and …

Understanding the complexities of social insect immunity, that is, how insects combat
pathogens, parasites and pests, is a fundamental question that not only has broad …

Microplastics (MPs) are growing and ubiquitous environmental pollutants and represent one
of the greatest contemporary challenges caused by human activities. Current research has …